Defence and dual-use innovation is key to Europe’s security, technological sovereignty and economic resilience. In the AI race, export controls have become a strategic tool. China restricts critical raw materials such as rare earths, and the U.S. restricts advanced semiconductors. Both are extending the reach of their rules beyond their borders, which puts European companies and research institutions in a compliance dilemma, because both markets still matter. EU sanctions against Russia and Iran are also changing quickly, especially for drone technology. A clear grasp of export-control rules and robust compliance systems are therefore essential for technology transfer, international cooperation and market access. They also help prevent sanction breaches and diversion and support a re ...